Diamonds
found at or near Earth's surface have formed through four different processes.
The plate tectonics cartoon above presents these four methods of diamond
formation. Additional information about each of them can be found in the
paragraphs and small cartoons below.
Methods
of Diamond Formation
Many
people believe that diamonds are formed from the metamorphism of coal. That
idea continues to be the "how diamonds form" story in many science
classrooms.
Coal
has rarely played a role in the formation of diamonds. In fact, most diamonds
that have been dated are much older than Earth's first land plants - the source
material of coal! That alone should be enough evidence to shut down the idea
that Earth's diamond deposits were formed from coal.
Another
problem with the idea is that coal seams are sedimentary rocks that usually
occur as horizontal or nearly horizontal rock units. However, the source rocks
of diamonds are vertical pipes filled with igneous rocks.
Four
processes are thought to be responsible for virtually all of the natural
diamonds that have been found at or near Earth's surface. One of these
processes accounts for nearly 100% of all diamonds that have ever been mined.
The remaining three are insignificant sources of commercial diamonds.
These
processes rarely involve coal.
1) Diamond Formation in Earth's Mantle
Geologists
believe that the diamonds in all of Earth's commercial diamond deposits were
formed in the mantle and delivered to the surface by deep-source volcanic eruptions.
These eruptions produce the kimberlite and lamproite pipes that are sought
after by diamond prospectors. Diamonds weathered and eroded from these eruptive
deposits are now contained in the sedimentary (placer) deposits of streams and
coastlines.
The
formation of natural diamonds requires very high temperatures and pressures.
These conditions occur in limited zones of Earth's mantle about 90 miles (150
kilometers) below the surface where temperatures are at least 2000 degrees
Fahrenheit (1050 degrees Celsius) (1). This critical temperature-pressure
environment for diamond formation and stability is not present globally.
Instead it is thought to be present primarily in the mantle beneath the stable
interiors of continental plates (2).
Herkimer Diamonds
Diamonds Don't Form From Coal
Synthetic Diamonds
Gem Diamond Producers
Diamonds
formed and stored in these "diamond stability zones" are delivered to
Earth's surface during deep-source volcanic eruptions. These eruptions tear out
pieces of the mantle and carry them rapidly to the surface (3), See Location 1
in the diagrams above and at right. This type of volcanic eruption is extremely
rare and has not occurred since scientists have been able to recognize them.
Is
coal involved? Coal is a sedimentary rock, formed from plant debris deposited
at Earth's surface. It is rarely buried to depths greater than two miles (3.2
kilometers). It is very unlikely that coal has been moved from the crust down
to a depth well below the base of a continental plate. The carbon source for
these mantle diamonds is most likely carbon trapped in Earth's interior at the
time of the planet's formation.
2) Diamond Formation in Subduction Zones
Tiny
diamonds have been found in rocks that are thought to have been subducted deep
into the mantle by plate tectonic processes - then returned to the surface (4).
(See Location 2 in the diagrams above and at right.) Diamond formation in a
subducting plate might occur as little as 50 miles (80 kilometers) below the
surface and at temperatures as low as 390 degrees Fahrenheit (200 degrees
Centigrade) (1). In another study, diamonds from Brazil were found to contain
tiny mineral inclusions consistent with the mineralogy of oceanic crust. (8)
Is coal involved? Coal is a possible
carbon source for this diamond-forming process. However, oceanic plates are
more likely candidates for subduction than continental plates because of their
higher density. The most likely carbon sources from the subduction of an
oceanic plate are carbonate rocks such as limestone, marble and dolomite and
possibly particles of plant debris in offshore sediments.
3) Diamond Formation at Impact Sites
Throughout
its history, Earth has been repeatedly hit by large asteroids. When these
asteroids strike the earth extreme temperatures and pressures are produced. For
example: when a six mile (10 kilometer) wide asteroid strikes the earth, it can
be traveling at up to 9 to 12 miles per second (15 to 20 kilometers per
second). Upon impact this hypervelocity object would produce an energy burst
equivalent to millions of nuclear weapons and temperatures hotter than the
sun's surface (5).
The high temperature and pressure
conditions of such an impact are more than adequate to form diamonds. This
theory of diamond formation has been supported by the discovery of tiny
diamonds around several asteroid impact sites. See Location 3 in the diagrams
above and at right.
Tiny, sub-millimeter diamonds have
been found at Meteor Crater in Arizona. Polycrystalline industrial diamonds up
to 13 millimeters in size have been mined at the Popigai Crater in northern
Siberia, Russia. [7]
Is coal involved? Coal could be
present in the target area of these impacts and could serve as the carbon
source of the diamonds. Limestones, marbles, dolomites and other carbon-bearing
rocks are also potential carbon sources.
4) Formation in
Space
NASA researchers have detected large
numbers of nanodiamonds in some meteorites (nanodiamonds are diamonds that are
a few nanometers - billionths of a meter in diameter). About three percent of
the carbon in these meteorites is contained in the form of nanodiamonds. These
diamonds are too small for use as gems or industrial abrasives, however, they
are a source of diamond material (6), See Location 4 in the diagrams above and
at right.
Smithsonian researchers also found
large numbers of tiny diamonds when they were cutting a sample from the Allen
Hills meteorite (7). These diamonds in meteorites are thought to have formed in
space through high speed collisions similar to how diamonds form on Earth at
impact sites.
Is coal involved? Coal is not involved
in the creation of these diamonds. The carbon source is from a body other than
Earth.
The Most Convincing Evidence
The most convincing evidence that coal
did not play a role in the formation of most diamonds is a comparison between
the age of Earth's diamonds and the age of the earliest land plants.
Almost every diamond that has been
dated formed during the Precambrian Eon - the span of time between Earth's
formation (about 4,600 million years ago) and the start of the Cambrian Period
(about 542 million years ago). In contrast, the earliest land plants did not
appear on Earth until about 450 million years ago - nearly 100 million years
after the formation of virtually all of Earth's natural diamonds.
Since coal is formed from terrestrial
plant debris and the oldest land plants are younger than almost every diamond
that has ever been dated, it is easy to conclude that coal did not play a
significant role in the formation of Earth's diamonds.
The
value of a diamond is based upon its Carat weight, Clarity, Color and the
quality of its Cut. Most diamonds are in a color range that runs from clear to
yellow to brown. Those that are colorless receive the highest grade and are
generally of highest value.
fancy
diamond "Fancy" Diamonds
A
small number of natural diamonds fall outside of the typical white-yellow-brown
color range. They can be pink, blue, purple, red, orange or any color. When
they are a pleasing shade they can be extremely valuable and are given the name
"fancy" diamonds.
colored
diamond What Causes Colored Diamonds?
As
in other gemstones, color variants in diamond can be caused by impurities, heat
or irradiation. Nitrogen in the stone causes a yellow color. Irradiation can
produce greens. Irradiation followed by heating can produce almost any color.
diamonds
in mantle The Gem of Heat and Pressure
Diamonds
are a high-temperature and high- pressure mineral. They do not form naturally
at Earth's surface or at shallow depths. The conditions where they can form are
in Earth's mantle at a depth of about 100 miles below the surface.
diamonds
in mantle Carbon Polymorphs
Polymorph
means "many forms". Diamond and graphite are polymorphs. They are
both composed of carbon but have different properties. This results from the minerals
having different crystal structures with different types of bonds between
carbon atoms.
synthetic
diamond Synthetic Diamonds for Industry
People
have been able to manufacture diamonds since the 1950's. At first the cost was
very high. Now, over 100 tons of diamonds are manufactured every year. Most of
these diamonds are used to make cutting tools and abrasives.
synthetic
diamond Synthetic Diamonds for Jewelry
People
have successfully made gem-quality diamonds for use in fine jewelry. The stones
are said to be undistinguishable from natural stones in a direct observation by
experienced gemologists. They can be identified by laboratory tests.
meteorite
diamondsDiamonds From Space!
Diamonds
have been found in some meteorites and the impact of meteorites with Earth is
thought to produce enough heat and pressure to transform carbon into diamonds.
octahedral
diamondOctahedral Diamonds
Many
uncut diamonds have a geometric shape. These are natural diamond crystals. A
common crystal shape is the octahedron. This shape is similar to two four-sided
pyramids connected at their base to form a geometric solid with eight faces.
diamond
drill bitDiamonds For Drilling
Drilling
oil and gas wells down through thousands of feet of rock requires a tough drill
bit. Small diamonds are embedded into the cutting surfaces of these bits. The
extremely hard diamonds wear away the rock as the drill bit is turned in the
hole.
carbonOne
Element Gemstone
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